Reclaiming Our Languages

North America

Reclaiming our languages Annotated BibliographyDownload

“teepaalilaani” © Hannah Buchanan 2025

  • Narrative Inquiry as Praxis: Examining Formative Assessment Practices in a Nature-Based Indigenous Language Classroom

    Baker (the researcher) and Germain (the Mi’gmaq immersion teacher) collaborate to investigate assessment in an Indigenous language immersion nature-based classroom and then consider how their findings relate to theory-practice connections. They offer specific and comprehensive examples of learning and assessment. In addition to modelling a nuanced researcher-teacher relationship, they also strongly support immersion, place-based programming, and culturally-relevant assessment as integral to language revitalization projects.

    Baker, B., & Germain, J. (2020). Narrative inquiry as praxis: Examining formative assessment practices in a nature-based Indigenous language classroom. In M. E. Poehner & O. Inbar-Lourie (Eds.), Toward a reconceptualization of second language classroom assessment: Praxis and researcher-teacher partnership (pp. 107–127). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35081-9_6

  • A worksheet, a whiteboard, a teacher-learner: leveraging materials and colonial language frames for multimodal indigenous language learning

    Engman explores the relationships between teacher-learners, multilingualism, classroom materials, and print literacy in an Ojibwe kindergarden class in the Great Lakes Region. She is especially interested in how English can be used to cultivate Ojibwe literacy in an English-majority environment. She comments on the challenges of providing high quality immersive language education within an English-majority classroom given a lack of time for planning, schedulaing constraints, and the presence of other instructional staff. She learns that using English may allow students to experiment across languages, and that the presence of an Indigenous language in a classroom, no matter how ineffectual in promoting proficiency, disrupts colonial education norms.

    Engman, M. M. (2021). A worksheet, a whiteboard, a teacher-learner: Leveraging materials and colonial language frames for multimodal indigenous language learning. Classroom Discourse, 12(1–2), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463014.2020.1856696

  • Community-Anchored Assessment of Indigenous Second Language Learning in K-12 Schools

    Tulloch et al. discuss the results of the Nunatsiavut K-12 Inuktitut Evaluation, and specifically explore the necessity of grounding Indigenous language learning and assessment in families and community. They consider Indigenous language assessment options, and highlight the necessity of aligning programming goals with community goals. They note that having explicit, targeted outcomes are a next step for their K-12 program, and that even in public schools, families and communities must be a fixture in language learning.

    Tulloch, S., Moore, S., Lane, J., Townley, S., Dicker, J., Boase, D., & Adams, E. (2022). Community-anchored assessment of Indigenous Second Language learning in K-12 schools. Frontiers in Education, 7, Article no. 733047. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.733047

  • Remote language revitalisation efforts during COVID-19

    Wiley-Camacho et al. investigate how digital learning tools, such as videoconferencing and flipped classrooms, can be best leveraged to support teachers engaged in language revitalization in tribal elementary schools. They find that at the Salish School of Spokane, video conferencing and flipped classrooms can both prompt community-building, intergenerational transmission/connections, and comprehension as students work on understanding class content without traditional in-class supports. They report that the flipped classroom structure can lead to improved pronunciation; however, both the flipped classroom and use of video conferencing decrease unprompted language use.

    Wiley-Camacho, G., Hillaire, G., Buttimer, C. J., & Colwell, R. (2022). Remote language revitalisation efforts during COVID-19. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 31(3), 331–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2022.2077819

  • Skwomesh Language Revitalized By First Nation Youth Through DIY Immersion.

    This CBC article describes a Language House created by three First Nation youth, their goals and hopes for the future, as well as how they are carving out their own Sk̲wk̲ x̱wx̱ ú7mesh sníchim immersion space. McCue reports on the urgency, resiliency, and hope involved in Indigenous language revitalization efforts.

    McCue, D. (2015, February 4). Skwomesh language revitalized by First Nation youth through DIY immersion. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/skwomesh-language-revitalized-by-first-nation-youth-through-diy-immersion-1.2940513

  • Visibility, Healing and Resistance: Voices from the 2005 Dena’ina Language Institute.

    Bell and Marlow explore the tensions between funding goals, community goals, and learner/participant goals in Indigneous language projects, especially in consideration of how the Dena’ina Language Institute’s programming can better align with community needs. They consider how a program can be considered a success by its participants and a failure by its funders and note that informal teachings seem to be the most memorable aspects of programming for participants. They discuss core participant goals and outcomes, including fluency, community, culture, literacy, resistance, and healing/visibility.

    Bell, L., & Marlow, P. E. (2009). Visibility, healing and resistance: Voices from the 2005 Dena’ina Language Institute. Journal of American Indian Education, 48(1), 1–18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398747

  • Creating Space and Defining Roles: Elders and Adult Yup’ik Immersion.

    Alexie et al. investigate how incorporating Elders into the Yup’ik Language Proficiency Program facilitates year-round, sustained learning and carves out a space for Yup’ik cultural norms within the university environment. They describe the nuances of working with Elders in a university space including relationship navigating and managing dual agendas of language revitalization and intergenerational cultural knowledge transmission. They consider the myriad of ways that including Elders in language programming can add depth, sustainability, and significance to language acquisition.

    Alexie, O., Alexie, S., & Marlow, P. (2009). Creating space and defining roles: Elders and adult Yup’ik immersion. Journal of American Indian Education, 48(3), 1–18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398752

  • Turning a Corner in Language Revitalization: Sitting Bull College’s Lakota Language Capacity Building Initiative.

    Hauff et al. describe the community impacts, creation, successes, and lessons learned through Sitting Bull College’s language revitalization program: Lakota Language Capacity Building Initiative. They hope to share what they have learned in their revitalization work with other Indigenous communities who wish to implement similar programs. They explain how including elder speakers can facilitate the re-creation of a speech community, and how various assessments, especially videos, can be used to help student self-awareness as well as program evaluation. They also call for increased scholarship about the successes and failures of other language revitalization projects, and note the need for sustainable, long-term funding.

    Hauff, T., Walker, N., & Bannister, E. (2024). Turning a corner in language revitalization: Sitting Bull College’s Lakota language capacity building initiative. Tribal College, 35(3), 60–64. https://tribalcollegejournal.org/turning-a-corner-in-language-revitalization-sitting-bull-colleges-lakota-language-capacity-building-initiative/

  • Anishinaabemowin pane: A Qualitative Exploratory Case Study of an Indigenous Language Immersion Revitalization Program

    Gordon explores the nuanced relationship between adult Indigenous language immersion curriculum goals and outcomes, and learner goals and objectives. In his dissertation, he considers adult learning theories, immersion models of reclamation, program evaluation, and curriculum development. He finds that learners in an Anishinaabemowin adult Indigenous immersion language program at a tribal community college attend the program to restart intergenerational language transmission, become fluent speakers, increase their sense of identity, and to heal. He also finds a misalignment between program goals and learner goals, and advocates for increased attention to learner motivations during curriculum development. He calls for the integration of high-quality assessment in adult immersion programs.

    Gordon, C. J. (2009). Anishinaabemowin pane: A qualitative exploratory case study of an indigenous language immersion revitalization program. (Publication No. 3360094) [Doctoral Dissertation, Capella University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/publiccontent/dissertations-theses/anishinaabemowin-pane-qualitative-exploratory/docview/305164171/sem-2?accountid=14789

  • Designing Indigenous Language Revitalization

    Hermes et al. explore how the creation of the Ojibwemodaa! language learning software became a process of language learning and sharing in it of itself, with community members building relationships and mobilizing to reclaim the liveliness of their language. They also discuss Ojibwe movie-making workshops, and how they contribute to an Ojibwe language strategy. They theorize about Indigenous knowledge production, materials creation, immersion schooling, ceremonial and relational epistimology, relationality, and reciprocity.

    Hermes, M., Bang, M., & Marin, A. (2012). Designing Indigenous language revitalization. Harvard Educational Review, 82(3), 381–402. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.82.3.q8117w861241871j